Chapter 1: The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson and "New Reconstruction"
May 16th, 1868
The United States Senate has convened to convict President Andrew Johnson on "high crimes and misdemeanors." The vote will be close. The Democrats and several Republicans will not vote for impeachment. They believe the trial and presentation of evidence has been one sided and unfair.
In the end, the vote came down to one man; Edmund Ross. A moderate Republican, he had debated the trial internally for weeks. In the end, no one knew how he was going to vote. In the end, Ross sided with his party, and voted guilty. Andrew Johnson was removed from office by a vote of 40-18. He went quietly, and dissapeared to a life of obscurity in Tennessee.
Speaker of the House Schulyer Colfax was voted into the Presidency. Knowing that Colfax had some radical sympathies (he had voted for the 13th Amendment even though Speakers typically don't vote on issues on the floor), the Radical Republicans risked it all by reintroducing the Wade-Davis Bill. The bill failed, but a new bill called the Colfax Readmittance Bill succeeded.
This bill stated that 2/3 of all voters on the voter rolls for the 1860 Election had to swear loyalty to the Union before being readmitted. More troops were deployed to the South as fears of unrest spread. The North was right to worry...
Almost immediately, the South exploded into violence. The KKK and other like minded groups attacked thousands of blacks and northern whites. Northern newspapers screamed about southern atrocities every day and public opinion in the North hardened against Southern white supremacy. One Philadelphia paper paraphrased an abolitionist slogan "Is not the Negro a man and a brother?" It became a popular rallying cry of Northerners, Southern Republicans, and African Americans.
In 1868, Colfax won the Republican nomination, and the Presidency, with General Grant as Vice President. He swore to crush the KKK and any groups whose goal was to "terrorize the Negro into an unnatural, Satanic state of fear and subordinace." The Force Bill of 1869 was passed on March 3rd, and gave Federal troops the powers necessary to combat an enlarged and invigorated KKK. By mid 1871, the group had been crushed. The heroism of several African-American volunteers in protecting both whites and blacks from KKK violence caused further cracks in the edifuce of white supremacy.
Another way white supremacism was combated was developed by Vice President Grant, and saved the Union a great deal of trouble. Passionate, fiery orators, mainly preachers and pastors, were sent South to convince poor whites that white supremacy hurt them as well. The main focuses of these speeches was the New Testament (particularly parts preaching acceptance) and stirring up resentment against the old planter class. One quotation from a speech given in Alabama:
"Hatred of the Negro is neither Biblical, nor economical. The Bible says to love thy neighbor, not love thy white neighbor! But the human heart is inclined to hate! God knows this! Jesus knows this! The Devil knows this! So too did the old planter class know this! And they used that vile emotion, that most harmful of sins, to manipulate you! Because they know that if you can convince the lowest white man he's better than the best colored man, he won't notice you're picking his pocket! Hell, give him somebody to look down on, and he'll empty his pockets for you!"
These "Freedom Preachers" were wildly successful. Across the South, many poor whites went from viewing slavery and white supremacy as natural institutions, to tools used by a handful of wealthy people to tread on the rest of the population. Coming into the 1872 Election, southern resistance was still stiff, but starting to slacken....
President Colfax
A popular anti-KKK cartoon that was widely circulated
Chapter 2: The 1872 Election and Colfax's Second Term
The 1872 Election was more of a formality than anything. The Democrats didn't stand a "snowball's chance in hell." The only former Confederate state to have been readmitted was Tennessee after all. The ongoing debate in the Republican party over Reconstruction was probably the most fought over issue. The Radicals liked the course Colfax had taken, even if he was against the disenfranchisement of former Confederates. The moderates were aggravated that the Colfax Administration was "more focused on elevating the Negro than restoring the Union." However, thanks to the brutality of the KKK and other groups, the Radicals won out and Colfax sailed into a second term.
The most monumental act of Colfax's second term was the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1874. This bill mandated that every American, regardless of skin color, was to be given equal treatment in public transportation, public accommodations, and was to be given an equal chance to serve on a jury. Thanks to large numbers of Federal troops and a slowly waning level of support for white supremacism, the Act was effectively enforced. In 1882, the Civil Rights Cases challenged the bill, but it was upheld by the Supreme Court who cited the 14th Amendment's guarantee of equal protection. The Court went on to say that the Federal government had the power to regulate businesses and other private organizations to uphold people's constitutional rights. Although none of the Justices admitted it, public opinion and the legacy of KKK brutality had influenced the Court's decision. Nonetheless, it was a great advancement for American racial equality.
During Colfax's term, North Carolina was the first state under the Reconstruction Acts readmitted to the Union. North Carolina had a large Unionist population during the war and had been the last state to secede, after being surrounded on all sides by Confederate states. This process was accelerated by Colfax's crackdown on Redeemer groups in the state as well. Georgia, Alabama, and Virginia soon followed and several other states were close to the 2/3 loyalty necessary to rejoin the Union.
In 1876, Rutherford B. Hayes assumed the Republican nomination and the Presidency. A staunch abolitionist, he was wildly popular with African Americans and Northerners. By the end of his first term, the Reconstruction era would be over. America would be completely transformed....
A cartoon celebrating the role Federal troops played in protecting African Americans
A poster by a KKK remnant in the South. The leaders of the group responsible were arrested soon after
President Hayes
*Second Picture changed to ensure compliance with site rules.
I hope this speech kind of shows how America is both becoming less racist and more expansionist.
Also, musical accompaniment:
Interlude: The Centennial
July 4th, 1876
American Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, PA
*Ladies and Gentlemen, please rise for the President of the United States of America
The band strikes up Hail to the Chief*
Thank you my countrymen! What a glorious day today is! The 100th anniversary of American independence! Just a century ago, we were a tiny republic on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. 13 small colonies, united under one flag. Today, our great Republic spreads from sea to shining sea! From Alaska to Alabama, the Stars and Stripes fly over the nation our Founders forged on this day, 100 years ago. Yet, even today, the history of some of those 13 colonies looms large over us all.
I am of course, speaking of the South. Those states that seceded for their so-called right to keep the Negro in chains. The slavery debate was the one issue our Founders couldn't solve, for fear of splitting the Union at such a delicate moment. They hoped, even the slaveholders among them, that slavery would slowly die. Unfortunately, they were wrong. As the Union grew, so too did the Slave Power of the South. Eventually, the situation became untenable. Some kind of conflict was necessary to free our Negro brothers from the bondage of slavery! The Founders didn't destroy slavery, for fear of destroying the Union. As a result, slavery nearly destroyed the Union. Even if no War happened, the moral corruption that comes with enslaving fellow men and brothers would have eventually destroyed our nation!
*President Colfax pauses for cheers*
The Civil War not only ended slavery and paved the way for Negro equality. It taught us a valuable lesson. The only language tyrants and barbarians understand is force! If America is to be a true beacon of Liberty, if America is to be a truly Christian nation, if America is to fulfill her MANIFEST DESTINY, we mustn't be afraid to wage war! We mustn't be afraid to die on foreign fields to spread freedom! We mustn't be afraid to send our sons off to war to spread the reign of America, the Empire of Liberty! It is terrible, oh yes it is terrible. But it would be more terrible to sit in peace and wealth while the world toils in darkness and oppression! If we should pursue such a course, we spit on the graves of our Founders, and on the graves of those we lost in the War! Until the whole world lives in the same freedom we do, the American Eagle must sound out its war cry. Until the whole world is free, I say LET THE EAGLE SCREAM!!!!
*Thundering applause erupts from the crowd. Copies of Colfax's speech will be read throughout the nation, drumming up nationalism.*
Part of a greeting card from the Centennial Exposition
A postcard from the 1900's using Colfax's still popular slogan
Chapter 3: Hayes' First Term and the End of Reconstruction
In Rutherford B. Hayes' first term, the Southern resistance finally crumbled. Initially, there was some violence in South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, and Louisiana. However, with the exception of South Carolina, these problems were easily dealt with. Many southern whites were adapting to legal equality with blacks, as they realized it didn't really change their lives much at all.
By the end of 1877, Mississippi, Florida, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas had all been readmitted to the Union. There were still folks that were resentful towards the "race-mixing Yankees." However, a majority of Southerners by this point didn't really care if African Americans could use the same trains and eat in the same restaurants. This was partially because the white and black communities came to an unspoken arrangement that lasted unchallenged until the 1920's. Whites and blacks would and could live together in harmony, work together, and go to school together. However, blacks and whites would go to separate churches, frequent different entertainment venues, and most importantly, would not date across the color line. While breaking these taboos was not illegal per se, it was a great way to get arrested for trespassing or (more likely) beat up. Interracial couples often wound up eloping and heading North. While this arrangement was far from perfect, compared to the state of race relations 10 years prior, it was positively utopic. However, one state didn't quite get the memo yet.....
South Carolina. The birthplace of the Confederacy, and the last stubborn holdout against Reconstruction. The South Carolinan people, try as some might, couldn't let go of white supremacy. In some parts of the state, things were so bad that Federal troops had to be placed on trains to make sure whites wouldn't literally throw blacks off of them. Redeemer groups hid out around Charleston, Columbia, and in parts of the Lowlands, waiting to make their move. In 1878 they made their move. Thousands of "Red Shirts" came out on election day to terrorize Republicans. Brandishing clubs, whips, pistols, and swords, they killed over 80 people and wounded hundreds more. The North was outraged. A massive surge of about 40,000 Federal troops, most of whom were just coming back from places like Florida, was sent into South Carolina. There, they engaged in what was essentially the first modern counter-insurgency. In Charleston and Columbia, hundreds of suspected Red Shirts were rounded up and interrogated. In the countryside, US Cavalry brutally eliminated any Red Shirts who resisted, and arrested those who didn't.
In 1879, South Carolina finally cracked. The strain of being occupied by a fresh wave of enraged Unionists destroyed any remaining support for the Redeemer movement. The majority of people just wanted to live in peace by this point. On June 8th, 1879, South Carolina was the last former Confederate state readmitted to the Union. However, racial tensions would always be more problematic in South Carolina as opposed to other states.
In 1880, Rutherford B. Hayes won re-election. 1880 also marks the official end of Reconstruction, as that was when the last Federal troops left the South. While there were a few minor challenges to racial equality in the aftermath, all were shut down. Reconstruction completely reshaped America. Before Reconstruction and the Civil War, America had been a racist, isolationist, agrarian nation beset by regionalism. By 1880, minorities had legal equality, although social tensions still existed to a degree. The American people, fueled by a sense of nationalism, desired expansion instead of isolation. Industry had boomed in the North, and was starting to spread South. Finally, regional rivalries were set aside in a wave of nationalism.
The US also kept a large standing military after Reconstruction. The American people (especially African Americans) viewed a militarily strong America as necessary to protect and expand freedom. The US Army was kept at a steady 200,000 men, able to swell massively in wartime. Beginning under Colfax, the US Navy was slowly expanded with the purchase of ironclad ships (that were later scrapped for more advanced models). Such a heavily armed nation was eager to expand. Nonetheless, America had to wait awhile for its place in the sun....
A Redshirt worn by South Carolinan white supremacists
Racist vigilantes outside the destroyed home of a black man
Artist depiction of US Cavalry chasing down Redshirts in rural South Carolina
Here's some early attempts at American Imperialism done by African-Americans. They don't succeed in doing much aside from causing a ruckus....
Chapter 4: Hayes' Second Term, the "Negro American Patriotic Society," and the Jamaica Incident
In 1880, Rutherford B. Hayes was elected to a second term. Both he, and America at large, were in high spirits. Reconstruction was over and the Union had been fully reunited. African Americans and other minorities had true legal equality with whites. Industry was booming, and Southern plantations were producing crops once more, this time using wage instead of slave labor. Some Southern planters had tried to introduce "sharecropping," which was essentially glorified slavery, but thanks to increased opportunities for African-Americans the plantation owners were stuck between paying their workers (somewhat) decent wages, or letting their crops rot in the fields. These newly employed workers formed a massive new market for American products, and helped drive industrial expansion.
All of these factors helped contribute to a massive wave of bellicose nationalism and militarism across the nation. America had overcome its past sins, rebuilt its broken Union, and was now watching industry boom like never before. Surely these were signs that America was God's chosen nation, with a Manifest Destiny to civilize and liberate mankind. This sentiment was felt more strongly by African-Americans than by any other segment of the population. In 20 years, America had gone from allowing their enslavement, to treating them as equal citizens. More importantly, patriotic Americans had fought the bloodiest war in American history, and then endured a decade and a half of often violent Reconstruction efforts to make this possible. The message to an overwhelming majority of African Americans was clear; America was the "Beacon of Liberty," for them and their African brothers enthralled to distant European empires. Only a strong, large America could protect the Negro race from oppression. Around the South, African Americans began forming "patriotic societies." Most of these organizations limited themselves to making speeches, hosting 4th of July picnics and parades, and decorating the graves of Union Civil War veterans on Decoration Day. However, one large network went further....
The largest network of patriotic societies was the Negro American Patriotic Society, with over 14,000 members in Alabama and Georgia. Led by state legislator Bill Thomas, the group became more radical in it beliefs in 1881 and 1882. By the end of 1882, some of the group's members were calling for a "filibuster" to liberate one or more European colonies. In January, 1883, a splinter radical group of roughly 1,000 men began formulating a plan to do just that. The radicals, led by another Georgia state legislator and AME pastor Henry McNeal Turner, evaluated which colony to attack. Logistical and financial concerns meant that their target had to be in the Caribbean. The radicals eventually chose Jamaica. The colony's economy was still lackluster due to the gradual decline of the sugar trade, so the British might be willing to let it go. There was a large population of Africans on the island who while no longer enslaved, still resented the racism of their British overlords. Funds were quietly raised for the expedition from the radical group members, and from wealthy Northern Radical Republicans. By April, the splinter branch of the Negro American Patriotic Society had purchased old Civil War surplus uniforms and weaponry, and was ready to embark...
The filibusters landed in Jamaica on May 13th, 1883. They quickly took control of Port Antonio, where they had disembarked. News soon reached British colonial authorities, who immediately ordered for the Jamaica Constabulary Force and local British troops to recapture the Port. The filibusters attempted to march on Kingston and stir up a rebellion among the native Jamaicans. Both of these attempts failed, as the locals wanted nothing to do with a rebellion, especially as British forces got closer to the filibusters. About halfway to Kingston, the Americans encountered British forces and skirmished with them. Roughly 8 Brits and a dozen Americans were dead. Realizing that reinforcements would be on the way, the Americans made a quick march back to Port Antonio...
From the end of May to the beginning of June, the filibusters holed up in Port Antonio and fought the British colonial forces. By June 12th, the filibusters were desperate. They were rapidly running out of ammo and food. The British had killed roughly 300 of their number. It seemed as if they would be totally annihilated. Luckily for them, help was on the way. After a public uproar over the possible fate of the filibusters, President Hayes sent several civilian and US Navy ships to bring the filibusters home. President Hayes was allowed to repatriate the filibusters by the British, so long as the US prosecuted them for their crimes. Hayes agreed, and by late June, the filibusters were home. They were charged for miscellaneous maritime crimes, and given 6 months in jail, a veritable slap on the wrist.
The British were outraged. The London press screamed about the "Useless Yanks and their uncontrollable Negroes." The French, who also had colonies in the Caribbean, joined the British in their furious denunciation of the Americans. The American public was firmly on the side of the filibusters. Henry McNeal Turner, who managed to survive, declared "Although we may not have liberated Jamaica, we have shown the world that Americans will fight tyranny wherever we find it!" Hayes privately sympathized with the filibusters, but nonetheless issued a rebuke against "Independent adventurers meddling in foreign lands." The Jamaica Incident, as it would be known to history, was the first of a series of incidents that pushed America and Britain into a deadly rivalry.....
Portrait of Henry McNeal Turner
Radical members of the Negro American Patriotic Society in Civil War surplus gear
Chapter 5: Garfield's Presidency and Assassination Attempt
In 1885, James A. Garfield was sworn in as President. The new President pledged to tackle corruption, energize the Navy, promote agricultural technology, and handle the "Indian Issue." Over the course of his term, he was indeed able to accomplish much of this. However, early into his presidency, he had to literally fight for his life....
On July 3rd, as Garfield was preparing to leave for the summer with his family at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station, a lawyer and former office seeker named Charles J. Guiteau shot him twice. One bullet glanced Guiteau was a staunch Republican who had supported Garfield during the campaign. He also had what is now known as Narcissistic Personality Disorder, and was convinced that his work was crucial to Garfield's election. After being turned down for a government job, and hearing of Garfield's plans to scrap the patronage system, was convinced that he needed to kill Garfield to save the Republican Party. Garfield was rushed to the hospital, where Dr. Willard Bliss managed to save his life. This is likely due to Bliss' early adoption of the antiseptic techniques pioneered by British surgeon Joseph Lister. Without his insistence on following Dr. Lister's sanitation procedures, the President likely would have died.
After spending two weeks recovering, Garfield was ready to go back to work. Congress invited him to speak as a show of goodwill on July 18th. Garfield gave a thundering address where he declared "No corrupt madman will come between me and my duties to the American people!" The President then used this wave of sympathy and support to pass the Pendleton Civil Service Act, which instituted exams for civil servants, as well as several bills advocating the creation of agricultural schools and investment in new technologies. However, the President soon waded into more controversial waters...
The Indian Wars, and the issue of what to do with other Indian tribes, was plaguing America. In the end, Garfield was able to force through the Assimilation and General Allotment Act of 1887, or the Garfield Act as it was popularly known, which was designed to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society. Native families were to be given a "decently proportioned allotment of good farmland" to sustain themselves. Native Americans who accepted allotments would be made into US citizens. Controversy came with regulations Garfield proposed, and eventually passed, to protect Native Americans and tribal lands. Excess lands not alloted were to be held in a trust by the US government. Other regulations were put into place to protect Native Americans from speculators and squatters. While these regulations and trusts only had limited effectiveness, Native Americans were more protected than they otherwise would have been. However, the divide over these bills was the first sign of a shift in the Republican Party...
More signs of shifting Republican attitudes came with Garfield's proposed naval expansion. Garfield wanted to build 20 new, cutting edge ironclads to help project American naval power, along the lines of the British Devastation-class and Colossus-class ships. In the end, he only got 10. The so-called Boston-class ironclads were indeed along the lines of America's British counterparts and near-rivals. However, many moderate Republicans were worn out from over two decades of "racial crusading and militarism." The Jamaica Incident had especially concerned them. Even though they did somewhat side with the filibusters, the Incident had hurt America's fledgling banana plantations on the island. Furthermore, the high taxes required for such a large military and some of the Radicals more ambitious social engineering projects went against their own pro-business sensibilities. The Party began to splinter, leading to a chaotic 1892 Election. There wouldn't be a Republican president as progressive and militaristic until Teddy Roosevelt....
A British Colossus-class Ironclad. The American Boston-class Ironclad was very similar
President James A. Garfield
A poster advertising Indian lands for sale by speculators. The Garfield Act attempted to combat these kinds of sales, but was only semi-effective.
Chapter 6: The Election of Grover Cleveland and America's Party Realignment
The Election of 1892 would be one of the most pivotal in American history, for a variety of reasons. The most important by far was the realignment of party ideologies that occurred over the course of this election. The basic ideological frameworks for both the Republicans and Democrats established during this election would, with some evolution over the years, generally remain the same (with only one President breaking the mold). Furthermore, this was the first election since the Civil War won by a Democrat.
In the aftermath of the Reconstruction Era, the Democratic Party was in crisis. African American voting, combined with their party being associated with Redeemer movements that terrorized the South during Reconstruction, had ensured that the Democrats had been thrashed by the Republicans everywhere, even in many Southern states. The party had to reinvent itself to survive. Northern Democrat Grover Cleveland was the man to do it. Although in many ways conservative, the events of Reconstruction and beyond had drastically changed his political worldview, especially as it related to foreign policy. In a speech at the Democratic National Convention, Cleveland declared that the days of white supremacy were behind the Democrats, and that "This party does not care about the white man or the Negro man. It only cares about the American man." He also crafted a "New Democrat" platform that advocated for two main principles: populist economics and a bellicose approach to foreign policy. In some ways, these policies aligned with his older beliefs. The New Democrat platform opposed high tariffs, subsidies for big business, and didn't mention Free Silver (although many supporters of his program agitated for it.) However, other parts of the platform showed just how radically Cleveland had changed due to political events within his lifetime. Formerly anti-imperialist and firmly libertarian, as time went on Cleveland wound up supporting US expansion, limited subsidies for small farmers, and regulation of larger businesses. His new platform would be very well received, especially in light of changes in the Republican party.
The Republican party splintered in two during the 1892 election. Moderates, mainly comprised of white middle to upper class Northerners, were exhausted by what they saw as two decades of high taxes, excessive military buildup, over-ambitious social engineering projects, and moral crusading. They argued that "America's only business should be business," and that America's Manifest Destiny as God's Beacon of Liberty was best accomplished by building prosperity at home. This should be achieved by lowering taxes, subsidizing business, and at most, maintaining the current size of the military, if not shrinking it. The Moderates supported Garfield's Vice President, Chester A. Arthur, who was a former stalwart and much more conservative than the crusading Garfield. The radicals, composed of other Northern whites, Union veterans, and African Americans backed Garfield for a second term. When Garfield got shut out of the nomination, he announced an independent run.
This was a fatal blow to Republican chances in the 1892 Election. They would have already been in for a tough fight, as Cleveland's platform appealed to many African Americans, Midwestern farmers, and many Southern whites, particularly poorer ones. African Americans liked his willingness to build up the military and use it to expand the Empire of Liberty. They also appreciated his constant rebukes of white supremacism in the Party. Poorer Southerners and Midwesterners liked his populist economic policies, especially promises to regulate railroads and help struggling farmers. The combination of a split Republican Party and the Democrat resurgence handed the election to Cleveland.
This election also spelled the final end of the Radical Republicans. After a long run of political dominance, this faction either melted into the Democratic Party, accepted the changes of the new Moderate run Republican Party, or supported third parties. Little did Cleveland know that his first term would be incredibly tumultuous.....
President Grover Cleveland
A campaign poster from Cleveland's successful run
Pamphlets from a Populist movement in the Midwest that wound up supporting Cleveland
Chapter 7: The Panic of 1893, the Annexation of Hawaii, and the Spanish-American War of 1896
Grover Cleveland's first term was one of the most tumultuous in American history. Right before he took office, the economy tanked in 1893. There were a variety of reasons behind the Panic of 1893, including a failed wheat crop in Argentina and railroad overbuilding. Cleveland immediately took action. He forced through repeals of both the Sherman Silver Purchase Act and the McKinley Tariffs, which were partially responsible for the economic collapse. President Cleveland also took the unprecedented step of using surplus federal funds to buy up large amounts of wheat, which helped to stabilize rapidly falling prices. Despite these measures, the Panic of 1893 and ensuing depression was one of the worst economic crises in American history, with estimated unemployment reaching 16.5% in 1894, before slightly declining to 13%, where it remained until 1898/99.
The American public was furious, and looking for someone to blame. Initially, the public blamed President Cleveland. However, in a stroke of political genius, Cleveland managed to direct the raw populist anger of the public, against banks, railroads, and their alleged Republican cronies. However, while Cleveland did have the Interstate Commerce Commission crack down on the railroads some, Cleveland ultimately decided to not rock the boat too much for fear of hindering economic recovery. However, the Panic of 1893 was just the beginning of Cleveland's term....
In 1893, American planters in Hawaii led a coup d'etat against the Hawaiian monarchy. On July 4th, 1894, they declared the Republic of Hawaii. However, the planters ultimate goal was to be annexed into the Union. Although Cleveland found the methods used by the planters to be somewhat distasteful, over the years he had slowly evolved from an isolationist to an expansionist. Plus, annexing Hawaii could boost the American sugar and fruit industries, both of which were still agitated by the increasing difficulty of doing business with British and French colonies in the Caribbean following the Jamaica Incident. On August 18th, 1895, the US formally annexed Hawaii as a territory. It was the first taste of colonial expansion for the Americans, and they would soon get another, larger morsel....
On February 15th, 1895, the Cuban people once again revolted against their Spanish masters. As fighting broke out, the American press covered atrocities committed by Spanish forces against the Cuban people. Many of these accounts were exaggerated, but the Spanish were committing legitimate atrocities in Cuba. When riots by Cuban loyalists broke out in Havana in November of 1895, President Cleveland sent the USS Georgia to Havana to safeguard American citizens. On March 10th, 1896, the USS Georgia exploded. A US Navy report indicated that an underwater mine had been detonated, although today an internal malfunction seems more likely. The American public was outraged at the "barbarity of the oppressive Spaniards." By May 3rd, Congress had passed a declaration of war against the Spanish.
In both the Caribbean and Pacific, America was determined to take Spain's colonies, with many believing "we will uplift the Filipino, the Cuban, and the Puerto Rican where the Spanish failed." The US Navy performed exceedingly well, especially in the Pacific. There, Commodore George Dewey captured Manila Bay and destroyed the Spanish squadron, even while suffering coal and ammo shortages. The US also captured Guam on July 1st. In Cuba, the US destroyed the Spanish navy after a series of laughably one-sided battles. On July 2nd, 1896, New York police commissioner and future President Theodore Roosevelt became a national hero for leading his volunteer Rough Riders up San Juan Hill, even though Roosevelt had the only horse. This combined with other decisive land battles in Cuba and the capture of Manila on July 20th, brought Spain to the negotiating table.
In the Treaty of Paris, ratified by the Senate on September 25th, Spain lost the last remnants of its old colonial empire. America annexed Guam, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Cuba. Spain in return received $50 million. The treaty stirred controversy in Congress among ardent anti-expansionists, but the general national mood was one of elation. America was finally coming into her own as a world power. The war's successful conclusion and the treaty's approval by the end of September also saved Cleveland's election. Anger over the economic crisis was still vitriolic, and some segments of the population were once again starting to blame him for the economy. However, thanks to American victory, most Americans associated Cleveland's Presidency with America's recent triumph over a "barbarous foreign foe."
The Spanish-American War had several important impacts. It propelled Teddy Roosevelt's political career to new heights, and ultimately helped him win the Presidency later on. The War whetted America's appetite for colonial expansion, which would lead to a string of future annexations. Even more importantly, the Spanish-American War heightened Anglo-American and Franco-American tensions. After the naval Battle of Manila Bay, German, Japanese, French, and British ships steamed into the Bay. German and Japanese commanders were careful not to offend the Americans since both Berlin and Tokyo had come to the conclusion that America was not to be trifled with. However the British and French were terrified of a more powerful America, and were still angry over various incidents. The French still had a chip on their shoulder over American hostility to their actions in Mexico and their support of Liberia, who had been causing trouble on the border with the French Ivory Coast. The British were still angered over America's hardliner stance regarding the Alabama Claims. Both empires were alarmed by the Jamaican Incident a decade prior. This lead to British and French ships cutting off American ships, refusing to salute the American flag (as according to naval courtesy), and even landing some supplies for the besieged Spanish. This enraged Americans who were already inclined to view the British and French as "despicable oppressors" who many believed needed to "hand over their colonies in our Hemisphere and get the Hell out" as one imperialist firebrand put it. As a result, many in Washington began discussing closer relations with the German Empire. All the while, insurgencies were brewing in Cuba and the Philippines.....
Next chapter will be an update on global affairs. The Scramble for Africa and Europe's reaction to American events will be pretty prominent.
Chapter 8: Cleveland's Second Term and Colonial Insurgency
At the start of President Grover Cleveland's second term, America was feeling good. The economy was finally recovering from the Panic of 1893. Just as importantly, a wave of national pride was washing over the land, as America reveled in her newfound might as a colonial power. However, these same colonies were to soon be the sight of wars far deadlier than the short, one-sided Spanish-American one...
Cuba and the Philippines. The two largest, most profitable, and most populated colonies America had acquired. They were also home to nationalist movements that weren't too happy that a new foreign power had set up shop. Lead by Generalissimo Máximo Gómez in Cuba and Emilio Aguinaldo in the Philippines, local nationalists dug in to fight the American invaders. The US sent 3,000 troops to Cuba and 5,000 to the Philippines to combat the insurgents. Most folks in the US expected an easy victory. After all, they had just beaten a European empire. How difficult could it be to defeat some primitive insurgents?
The answer to that question was more difficult than anticipated. Guerrilla tactics employed by the rebels caught the Americans off guard. For the next 3 years, from 1897-1900, America was bogged down in fighting with their new Filipino and Cuban subjects. In the case of the Moro Rebellion, fighting wouldn't wind down until 1910. The US used harsh tactics in order to try and suppress the rebels. In the Philippines, it was rumored that American troops buried Muslim rebels with pig corpses to deter others from joining their ranks. However, these rumors could never be truly substantiated. What is known, is that by late 1898 to early 1899, the US shifted to a controversial new strategy. The US decided that the best way to crush the insurgency was to take over "key zones of control" and to segregate the civilian population from the rebellious one, via the use of internment camps. The camps were controversial, and the US military in the Philippines and Cuba tried to suppress news of the camps from reaching the Homeland. These efforts failed, and the public was instantly divided. Proponents of the camps argued that they protected the natives from the brutal nature of the war going on around them. Detractors stated that the camps' existence undermined America's moral character, and were contrary to the goals of uplifting the natives and preparing to integrate them more wholly into the Union. Future generations would also notice the similarities of these camps to those used by far more malevolent regimes (even if American camps were nowhere near as disgusting). Regardless of the morality of it all, the new strategy, when combined with a surge of 30,000 troops to the Philippines and 10,000 to Cuba meant that the fighting was essentially over by 1900.
The 1900 Election was a steal for the Republicans. The American public quickly grew weary of the various insurgencies, and Republican William McKinley scored cheap points by bringing up Cleveland's hiring of a substitute and contrasting it with soldiers fighting in "Cleveland's war." McKinley won on a promise of limited foreign intervention and lower taxes. However, his administration would have some severe challenges......
The world from 1870-1900 was a chaotic whirl of power struggles, wars, and international incidents. The world witnessed the rise of Japan, Germany, and the United States as serious powers. The Europeans also carved up Africa amongst themselves, and prepared to colonize the "Dark Continent." In China, the Qing Dynasty and the "Fist of Harmony Society" rose up in rebellion against foreign influence. The world was changing so quickly, some nations felt difficulty keeping up....
One of the most Earth-shattering vents of this period was the Rise of Germany. In July 1870, the Prussians and French went to war, and the French felt confident in their victory. Six months later, their government was signing a treaty giving the Prussian foe Alsace-Lorraine. Most humiliatingly of all, the Prussians declared the formation of their new German Empire in the Palace of Versailles. The formation of the new German Empire alarmed many in Europe. The old balance of power could not possibly survive the creation of such a state. French defeat in the war also led to the formation of the French Third Republic, as angry French citizens overthrew the Emperor. Paris even attempted to form its own commune before being brutally crushed. The new Republic had a nasty revanchist streak that would only grow worse....
Another major development in Europe was the beginning of the Alliance System. The Germans aligned themselves with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Kingdom of Italy, and maintained good relations with the Ottomans and the Americans. The French and Russians signed the Franco-Russian Alliance, which would set the stage for the Triple Entente. These alliances would be a major issue in the future..
Another concerning development in Europe was the rise of nationalism. In the Balkans, various ethnic groups, particularly the Serbs, began agitating for the formation of ethnic homelands for themselves. In Germany, pan-German sentiment continued to grow, emboldened by the recent victory over France. In Eastern Europe, nationalism among ethnic groups in Russian territories was also growing. To top everything off, France and Spain were slowly falling into the grip of revanchist nationalism due to the loss of Alsace-Lorraine and their colonial empire respectively. A storm was brewing....
In 1884-1885, the Berlin Conference established regulations for European colonization in Africa. This sparked the so-called "Race for Africa," as all of Europe's major powers tried to claim as much territory as possible on the "Dark Continent." Although the division of Africa wouldn't be fully complete until roughly 1914, many areas of the continent were gobbled up. In West Africa, European colonialism sparked a series of disputes with American aligned Liberia. Liberia had followed the lead of its former colonizer and begun treating the "native Africans" as people to "civilize" not as animals to control. The Liberians also adopted their own form of Manifest Destiny, which stated that Liberia should expand throughout West Africa and beyond to "Bring Christian Civilization to our less enlightened brothers." This vision of Manifest Destiny was also anti-imperialism (or more accurately, anti-European imperialism, not anti-American). Throughout the 1880's and 1890's, the Liberians had several border incidents with French and British colonies in the region, and these disputes inevitably drew in the United States. When the French threatened to invade Liberia following the 1895 Ivory Coast incident, which left 3 Frenchmen and 1 Liberian wounded, the US deployed 5,000 troops to the country. Even after the French backed off, American troops remained on Liberian soil and the US government began giving the Liberian military equipment and training in case of future incidents....
In Asia, Japan was on the rise. After having been forcibly opened by the Americans several decades prior, the country had rapidly westernized. In the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), the Japanese took Formosa as their first colonial possession. During this time period, they also increasingly meddled in Korean affairs, setting the stage for future annexation. The rise of Japan both impressed and alarmed European powers. Some viewed the Japanese as the "White Man of the Orient." Others began having apocalyptic racial fantasies of Japan uniting the Oriental world and attacking European dominance. However, other concerns in Asia would distract from this...
In 1898, the so-called "Boxer Rebellion," would erupt in China. Anger over foreign imperialism, combined with a severe drought, caused the so-called "Fist of Harmony Society" to openly revolt against foreign influence. After some deliberation, the Qing Dynasty openly supported the Boxers, and declared war on the foreigners. Foreign traders and missionaries, along with Chinese Christians, hid out in the Legation Quarter in Peking, where they were besieged by the Boxers and the Imperial army. The Western powers and Japan were universally enraged by the rebellion, especially the vicious attacks on missionaries and Chinese Christians. The Eight-Nation Alliance, composed of Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Japan and the United States deployed a force of roughly 60,000 troops and 60 warships to crush the rebellion. By January 1900, the Alliance forces had invaded Peking, and broke the siege of the foreign legation. During the Occupation of Peking several incidents occurred between American soldiers and their British, French, and Japanese counterparts. The Americans had been instructed to behave with "dignity befitting the Stars and Stripes," and for the most part did behave admirably (even if quite a few Chinese relics found their way into American hands). The British, French, and Japanese soldiers went on an absolute rampage, looting, murdering, and especially raping. Thousands of Chinese women committed suicide to avoid this fate. American soldiers often tried to protect Chinese women, sometimes of their own initiative, sometimes because they had been ordered to. This often resulted in violent clashes between Americans and foreign troops. In Europe, many accused the Americans of being "Orientalized," or even being Boxer sympathizers. In the US, the general sentiment was one of disgust at "soldiers of supposedly civilized nations acting like Attila the Hun." This led to even worse relations between the US and the British and French. The other major outcome of the Boxer Rebellion was Russia's invasion and occupation of Manchuria following a border incident between Russian troops and "Boxers." This would set the stage for the coming Russo-Japanese War....
Looming over this entire time period was the specter of a rising, bellicose America. The Americans had come out of the Civil War with a new industrial base, a new sense of nationalism, and a new willingness to use military force to protect American interests and values. The world's major powers all had different reactions to this new and invigorated America. The British and French were equal parts enraged and terrified. The fear derived from the fact that America was a large, rapidly industrializing power that could effectively project power abroad while being safe at home. The anger came from the near constant clashes and incidents between the two. America had held a hardliner stance on the Alabama Claims, backed a belligerent, anti-colonialist Liberia, and had been openly eyeing up their possessions in the Americas. From the American perspective, Britain and France were aggressive powers who flagrantly violated the Monroe Doctrine, actively tried to surround America's "Brother Liberia" and refused to make just compensation for their support of the treasonous Confederacy. The Russians, being allies of the French, were not overly fond of the Americans either.
The Japanese and Germans held different perspectives. While the Japanese were hardly happy with America's annexation of the Philippines, America's willingness to treat them with (some) respect despite their race, and their hostility to Russia, made relations cordial. The Germans viewed America as a useful future ally. The republic's size, isolation, growing power, and imperial ambition made them a perfect partner for German ambitions. If the Germans were going to remake the European order, wars with Britain, France, and Russia were inevitable. An alliance with the Americans would make accomplishing their imperial visions much easier. Throughout this time period, Berlin made an active effort to court America both politically and economically. American trade with Germany exploded, especially as tariffs imposed by the British and French to punish the Americans went into effect. A new alliance was forming.......
Kaiser Wilhelm issues the Proclamation of the German Empire at the palace of Versailles
A painting depicting a French boy being taught that Alsace-Lorraine is a rightful part of France, circa 1880
A depiction of a battle during the First Sino-Japanese War
Africa before and after the Race for Africa
American troops scale the walls outside Peking during the Boxer Rebellion
This chapter and the next one are going to be rather chaotic
Chapter 10: The McKinley Presidency, the Panamanian Intervention and the Rise of Populism
William McKinley's Presidency was as eventful as it was short. His term in office saw the US get embroiled in a conflict in Panama and the rise of increasingly angry public opinion directed towards monopolistic "trusts." Although he wasn't a bad leader or President, his more conservative outlook made him ill equipped to handle these struggles...
In 1901, the US government was given a once in a lifetime opportunity to buy the unfinished Panama Canal from the French. Although the construction site was a bit of a disaster, McKinley and others saw the potential of the US owning such a canal. Not only would it provide the US massive amounts of revenue, in wartime they could deny access to the canal to hostile powers, crippling their naval mobility. Eventually, the price was settled at $70 million. The government had tried to negotiate the French lower, but rumors of British interest in the site quickly ended negotiation as the US rushed to buy. Reports that the French invented those rumors are, of course, ridiculous....
However, buying the canal was only the beginning of the whole affair. The Colombian government proved incredibly difficult to work with, when they cooperated at all. Eventually, frustration grew to such an extent that the Americans and French eventually cooperated in helping Panama secure independence. When Panama declared its separation from Colombia, the US instantly recognized the new country. A treaty was negotiated between the US and the Panamanians granting the US control over the future Panama Canal Zone. The US also sent several gunboats to ensure Panama's independence.
When it was all said and done, the US won a great deal out of the Panamanian ordeal. A cooperative ally, control over the world's only canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific, and an opportunity to show its strength to its southern neighbors. However, a great deal of the Republican base was actually rather unhappy with McKinley over his handling of Panama. On the campaign trail, McKinley had promised that his administration would "not get involved in foreign adventurism." Although no one died during the Panamanian Intervention and the US didn't annex any new territories, many Republicans felt that the spirit of his promise had been violated. This sense of betrayal was one of the biggest factors contributing to his failed re-election bid.
Closer to home, McKinley wasn't winning many friends among the lower classes. Since the 1880's, the American economy was increasingly dominated by monopolistic "trusts" that had complete ownership of an entire industry. Standard Oil, the Pan-American Tobacco Company, and US Steel were a few of the most prominent trusts, and wielded immense powers. They could set supply, demand, and wages. When workers would agitate for higher wages and better conditions, these trusts would hire private armies (or co-opt local government forces) to crush them. After a series of labor riots in 1902-1903 left dozens of workers dead, and newspapers published pictures of strikebreakers clubbing women and children, public anger grew to a boiling point. McKinley did nothing, as he personally believed that taking action against the trusts would both hurt the economy, and be unconstitutional.
In the 1904 election, this anger came out in full force. The Democrats nominated the firebrand William Jennings Bryan, who proved to be wildly popular. Promising Free Silver, anti-monopoly actions, and a muscular military, Bryan thundered ahead in the polls, winning the 1904 election. He too would be a one-term President....
The Christening of the Flag of the Republic of Panama
American machines at work on the Panama Canal
An illustration of violence between strikebreakers and workers outside a US Steel factory
Chapter 11: Bryan's Presidency and the Beginning of the Arms Race
William Jennings Bryan was one of America's most passionate Presidents. When he took up a cause, he devoted himself to it with unyielding fervor. This passion helped him to win the Presidency. However, once in office, that ideological fervor became a curse, rather than a blessing...
Throughout his term in office, Bryan was obsessed with crafting legislation for the Free Silver movement. However, the overwhelming majority of both Republicans and Democrats in Congress supported the Gold Standard. Bryan's inability to move on from this issue was fatal. His often vitriolic rhetoric surrounding the issue torpedoed his relationship with Congress, and began aggravating a large portion of the American public, who wanted more legislation to protect them from trusts.
While such legislation could have passed, Bryan had so poisoned his relationship with Congress that the legislature obstructed his agenda out of pure spite. The influence of big money certainly didn't help. As a result of this inability to act, public anger continued to explode, with labor riots and protests becoming more frequent. Strikebreakers were increasingly depended on, and increasingly militarized. After strikebreakers clashed with local police outside a Standard Oil refinery in Cleveland, public paranoia of a takeover by the "trust building oligarchs" began spreading. Thousands of Americans protested or rioted against Standard Oil, and the Rockefeller family began keeping large security forces at their estates and properties. The nation was at a breaking point....
The only major accomplishment of Bryan's administration was the launch of the South Carolina-class "Super Battleship" in 1905. The first ship of its kind, the South Carolina and subsequent ships in its class put the world on edge. It was the most powerful battleship ever fielded by a modern nation. The world was both awed and terrified. As the ship did a tour of America's Caribbean territories (and came within sight of Jamaica and other European colonies) the rest of the world's major powers raced to build their own. In Britain, the HMS Dreadnought was launched in February 1906. The French, Germans, and Japanese soon followed suit. By the time of the First World War, the Italians, Spanish, Austro-Hungarians, and the Russians would have several dreadnoughts as well. The Anglo-American Arms race began as soon as Britain launched the HMS Dreadnought. The US plan called for a fleet of 36 Battleships and Battle-cruisers. This would leave the UK completely outclassed in the Caribbean, and when combined with German, and later Austro-Hungarian and Italian battleship building, would leave the British locked out of the Mediterranean and could spell the end of British naval supremacy. This pushed the British into an alliance with France in an effort to shore up their naval dominance, and by extension, the Empire.
As America entered 1908, the nation was in a chaotic place. Anger over the power of trusts, and fear of their militarized strikebreakers, was continuing to boil over. Fear over foreign affairs also began to boil, as the arms race charged ahead. The nation desperately wanted a President who could make them feel safe and secure against all enemies, foreign and domestic. Theodore Roosevelt turned out to be that man. Promising to break the "trust power," and ensure that America had a military "worthy of a manly and imperial nation," Roosevelt managed to secure the Republican nomination. This somewhat peeved the conservatives, but in the wake of (not entirely unfounded) fears of mass unrest, decided Roosevelt was their best shot. How right they were.....
An anti-Free Silver poster by the Republicans
Militarized strikebreakers face down striking workers outside a textile mill.
The South Carolina-class USS California on patrol in the Caribbean
A button from Teddy Roosevelt's Presidential campaign ca 1908
Chapter 12: Roosevelt's First Term, Trust Busting, and the End of the Strikebreakers
In 1908, Theodore Roosevelt ascended to the Presidency of a frightened, angry America. However, the nation's still good economy and growing military strength meant there was plenty to be optimistic about. In his inaugural address, TR said as much, and then promised to destroy the "trust power" once and for all.
In the first several months of his term, TR used his extraordinary popularity and incredible strength of personality to push through the Johnson Anti-Trust Act of 1908, the Federal Trade Agency Act of 1908, and the Protection of Workers Assemblies Act of 1908. The Johnson Act was designed to prevent anti-competitive business practices. The Federal Trade Agency Act founded the Federal Trade Agency and further regulated unfair business practices. The Protection of Workers Assemblies Act (PoWA Act) severely restricted the power of private security companies like the Pinkerton's, saying that they were violating workers right to assembly as guaranteed by the Constitution. From now on, they were only authorized to secure factories when they weren't in operation, or to secure the homes of private industrialists. Several strikebreaking companies violated or attempted to violate the Act, and Roosevelt eventually deployed the cavalry to stop them. This essentially ended the use of private strikebreakers. In the future, the government would break up violent strikes or ones "detrimental to the public welfare."
Shortly after these first pieces of legislation passed, Roosevelt went about ruthlessly enforcing them, along with the Sherman Trust Act. Using his awesome regulatory powers, Roosevelt broke up dozens of trusts. Standard Oil, Pan-American Tobacco, US Steel, and the National Securities Company (a railroad trust) were just some of the more prominent trusts busted by President Roosevelt. The public was ecstatic. One pro-labor newspaper proclaimed "Just as President Roosevelt charged up San Juan Hill to expand American liberty abroad, so too has the Rough Rider stormed Capitol Hill to expand our liberty at home!" Even most conservatives were pleased, as America began reaping the benefits of a legitimately competitive economy.
With this done, President Roosevelt used his political clout to continue America's military buildup, and lead the nation in a short, decisive war of expansion. On April 5th, 1910, the US launched a punitive expedition into the Dominican Republic after rebels there killed several American sailors from the USS Dixie. This had not been the first such incident, and the American people were tired of dealing with the troublesome nation. The Dominican Campaign lasted until June 25th, and was a decisive American victory. The nation was formally annexed as a Territory on August 12th, after other rebel insurgencies had been put down. The campaign boosted Roosevelt's already immense popularity, while also provoking further fear in the British and French. This prompted militarization of the border with Canada, on both sides.
Another major military event that began in 1910 was the so-called Border War with Mexico, as chaos from the Mexican Civil War spilled North. While this originally only meant garrisoning border towns, it wouldn't be longer before more vigorous action was taken...
Throughout the rest of his first term, Roosevelt passed bills to improve the safety of food and drugs, as well as sanitation in America's large cities and colonies. This was motivated by the prevalence of disease in many American cities, as well as exposes on the corrupt and unhealthy practices of the meatpacking industry. In 1912, Roosevelt thundered to re-election. The world would explode during his second term....
A political cartoon about Roosevelt's trust busting efforts
A photo from the USS Yankee as it fires on Dominican defenses
American troops in the Dominican Republic
An example of false advertising outlawed by the FDA following their creation in 1911
The world from 1900-1914 was gradually stumbling towards war, without even realizing it. Conflicts in Asia, Africa and the Americas all made the world an increasingly volatile place. Across the globe, nations armed themselves, allied with other powers, and began doing anything and everything to expand their influence...
In Europe, the British and French formally signed a treaty of alliance in 1906, out of mutual fear of American and German militarism. The core of the future "Triple Entente" between France, Russia, and Britain was officially formed. The British and French also raced against the Germans to build the newest, biggest Super Battleships, as the arms race heated up. Meanwhile, in 1912-1913, the Balkans exploded into a series of conflicts that set the stage for the upcoming World War. The First Balkan War featured the Russian backed Balkan League (Bulgaria, Montenegro, Serbia, and Greece) face off against the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans were defeated soundly, and ceded Crete and all its territory west of the line between Enos and Midia. An independent Albania was formed (that didn't include even a majority of ethnic Albanians). The disastrous defeat in the First Balkan War also lead to a coup in the Empire, with the Committee for Order and Union (COU) taking control of the country. The COU remained dedicated to friendship with Germany, which would pay off in the future. Shortly after the First Balkan War, the Second Balkan War broke out between Bulgaria and Serbia and Greece. The Bulgarians felt cheated out of their rightful share of Macedonian land gained in the First Balkan War. The war ended quickly in a resounding defeat for Bulgaria, and only achieved the further spread of nationalism in the region.
Africa was the scene of several colonial incidents during this time period. Morocco was an especially contentious issue between Germany and the Anglo-French alliance. Germany agitated for either Moroccan independence or perhaps Italian ownership. The British and French were firmly committed to Franco-Spanish rule. Once it became clear that any hostile action towards France in this matter would draw in the British, the Germans backed down. Another source of tension in Europe was the Second Boer War (1900-1903). The British attacked the independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal after gold was discovered in the region. The British expected a short war that might have lasted six months. Thanks to the Germans funneling weapons to the Boers and their own tradition of "commando" style warfare, the British got bogged down in a three year quagmire. By 1902, the British were so desperate to win, and angry at continued Boer resistance, that they began shoving thousands of Boer women and children into concentration camps, not unlike the American ones in the Philippines and Cuba. However, conditions were much worse in the British camps as compared to the American ones. Horror stories of the British selling Boer mothers worn out wooden planks to bury their dead children, among other atrocities, alarmed the international community. These camps would be a prelude to similar, but much more vicious camps used by the British after WWI. Another horrifying colonial incident was the brutality of the Congo Free State. As stories of Belgian officers essentially enslaving the natives, and murdering or mutilating the Congolese by the thousands became known, the international community forced the Belgian government to seize the colony from King Leopold II in 1907. The Americans were notable in calling for Congolese independence, stating that "No people who have endured such suffering at the hands of foreign despotism should continue to be subjected to that despotism."
Speaking of the Americans, their Liberian allies were another agitating influence in Africa. The Liberian government sent weapons and ammunition to African kingdoms, and although this alone failed to halt European colonialism, it did increase tensions with the British and French. In fact, relations grew so tense that the Liberians began arming and fortifying their nation, essentially turning it into a gigantic fortress in West Africa. The Americans also doubled their presence in Liberia from 5,000 to 10,000 and also sent a squadron of ships, including the Super Battleship USS Liberia, named in honor of their former colony. These preparations would soon prove invaluable....
In Asia, the US clashed with Japan and France. Tensions rose as each power tried to assert dominance over the strategically valuable South China Sea. The French wanted the Sea to protect their holdings in Indochina, and open the door to possibly taking the Philippines from America if opportunity arose. The Japanese desired to protect Formosa and open up the possibility of future expansion in the Philippines. America wanted to protect the Philippines and leave an opening to take Indochina. America's Pacific Fleet deployed a large contingent in the Philippines in 1911, leaving America in the strongest position of the three major powers in the region. Nonetheless, the constant jockeying in the region made relations between the three powers rather tense...
Japan also made some big moves in Asia during this period. In 1905-1906, the Japanese waged the Russo-Japanese War. The Japanese experienced a string of unbroken military victories, and decisively won the war. Nonetheless, there was little change in terms of actual territory because of Japanese over-extension (which wasn't public knowledge). The peace was formalized in the Treaty of San Francisco. Theodore Roosevelt wound up winning the Nobel Peace Prize for his diplomatic effort in orchestrating the peace. In Japan, riots broke out as nationalists were enraged by the lack of territorial gain. In Russia, the Revolution of 1907 broke out, and was promptly crushed. Of particular note was the rise of the "Black Thousands" or "Yellow Shirts," a big tent group of far-right radicals backed by the Tsar against the revolutionaries. These radicals would play a key role in Russia's future....
In 1910, the Japanese annexed Korea. They quickly set about exploiting the colony and deploying troops to the border with Manchuria. Korea was viewed as useful source of food, labor, and raw materials for the burgeoning Japan. It was also the scene of a rather brutal "Japanization" process, as the Japanese sought to annihilate Korean culture in order to better control the colony. This alarmed some American missionaries in the region (who wanted to less brutally Americanize the country), several of whom had minor altercations with Japanese officials. This soured relations between Washington and Tokyo even further...
The Americas, specifically North America, was a powder keg of imperial rivalry and ambition. The American-Canadian border became even more militarized, as both powers prepared for the worst. In the Caribbean, the Americans deployed even more ships and troops, which petrified the British and French. The Annexation of the Dominican Republic further inflamed Anglo-French fears. Some British and French officials advocated selling their territories to the Americans, and were promptly shot down. The popular sentiment was summed up by First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill in 1912, "The British people, and by extension the people of Europe, will not be bullied by the jingo, half-mongrelized Yankees into anything. It would be better for every British soldier and sailor in the Caribbean to die heroic deaths than for us to soil our national honor in such a way." The world would watch Britain and France suffer dearly for this sentiment....
The other major issue in North America was the Border War between the US and Mexico, as chaos from Mexico's civil war continued to spill North. The Americans were beginning to think a punitive expedition might be necessary...
All of these incidents, rivalries, and wars made conditions ripe for the June Crisis in 1914, and the start of the First World War....
A Greek poster celebrating the "New Greece" after the Balkan Wars
A magazine cover satirizing the Global Arms Race
African American soldiers in Liberia
A British internment/concentration camp in South Africa
The USS Tennessee anchored off the Philippine coast in the South China Sea
A newspaper announcing the Japanese annexation of Korea
The gun battery of the USS Thomas Jefferson stationed in Cuba
This is going to be a monster of a chapter
Chapter 14: The Start of WWI
On June 4th, 1914, one bullet changed world history forever. Archduke Franz Ferdinand of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serbian
ultra-nationalist. The Austro-Hungarian people were outraged, as were their leaders. Although some in the leadership advocated a more peaceful approach to dealing with Serbia (which covertly supported the group) the majority of the Austro-Hungarian government was prepared for war. When Germany gave their allies a "blank check" of support, that was the final straw. Austria mobilized for war, and on June 27th, launched a surprise attack on Serbia. The Russians, who had also partially mobilized due to the "June Crisis" declared war on Austria-Hungary. The Germans then declared war on Serbia and Russia. France promptly declared war on Germany. Italy then honored their treaty with the Germans and declared war on France, Serbia, and Russia.
On July 1st, the Germans launched a massive offensive on a still mobilizing France, via Belgium. This finally pushed the British into the war, and their Japanese allies promptly joined the war on their side as well. Sensing opportunity, the Ottomans threw in their lot with the German "Triple Alliance" by attacking Russian ports in the Black Sea on July 29th. The Ottomans also attacked British holdings in Arabia, and manipulated anger felt by local Muslims to provoke riots and rebellions. In Europe, the war was divided into two fronts; the Eastern and Western.
On the Eastern Front, the Triple Entente (Russia, France, Britain, etc.) performed disastrously. The bad news began almost immediately after the War began. The Russians devoted 750,000 men to the Invasion of East Prussia, and went up against a German force a third their size. However, the Germans were better trained and equipped as compared to their backward Russian opponents. The Invasion was an unmitigated disaster and the Russian force suffered 370,000 casualties, compared to Germany's 28,000. This insane invasion was followed by a massively successful invasion of Russian territory, which saw Warsaw fall into German hands by mid 1915. On the Balkan theater of the Eastern Front, the Entente also began suffering setbacks. The Bulgarians joined the war on the side of the Triple Alliance on February 3rd, 1915, with hopes of gaining territory in Macedonia from the Serbs and Greeks, both of whom were Entente powers. When combined with Austro-Hungarian, Italian, German, and Ottoman forces, the Triple Alliance had an incredible advantage in the Balkans. Serbia and Greece would both fall by mid 1916. The Eastern Front would continue deteriorate for the Entente...
The Western Front was only slightly less disastrous. At the outbreak of the war, the French enacted their "XVII Plan" which called for a French invasion of Alsace-Lorraine in the event of war with Germany. The end result was 400,000 dead Entente troops and a horrific defeat. As the Germans continued to advance, the Entente hoped for a miracle when the two armies clashed at the Marne. Unfortunately, half of the British Expeditionary Force under the command of Sir John French had begun evacuating by this time, as British High Command felt increasingly hopeless about the war. They left the other half of the BEF in Europe so it didn't look like the British were "retreating in a dishonorable fashion." The Battle of the Marne was one of the bloodiest battles in human history. In the course of 4 days, from September 8th-12th, 1914, the combined casualty count from both sides amounted to over half a million. The French would suffer 300,000 casualties, including 110,000 dead. The British would suffer 25,000 casualties, including 4,000 dead. The Germans suffered 190,000 casualties, including 48,125 dead. Entente morale collapsed as the remaining force beat a hasty retreat to Paris. In another tremendous battle, the Germans captured Paris on October 13th, 1914. There, they would spend a month suppressing riots and rebellions, as the French people violently resisted the "barbarous Prussianized Huns." This proved invaluable. In the time the Germans were stalled getting a handle on Paris, the French government (which had fled to Lyon) was able to rally the nation, and receive reinforcements from an outraged and humiliated Britain. In an effort to make their new conscripts more fanatical, the French government grossly exaggerated the brutality of German occupation. This hardened the resolve of the French people, and every male who was above the age of 14 and could hold a gun was expected to train. When the Germans had finally restored order to Paris, they continued their advance South... for 70 miles. Then, at the city of Orleans, French resistance stiffened to such a degree that a stalemate developed. Throughout 1915 and part of 1916, this would be the location of the Western Front. Massive trenches were constructed, and quickly became breeding grounds for disease. In an attempt to break through the French lines, the Germans would begin using chlorine gas in 1915. By the end of the war, both sides were regularly deploying chlorine gas and other chemical weapons. This, combined with constant artillery barrages and officers ordering suicidal charges through the "No-One's Land" in between the trenches made the Western Front seem like the 7th circle of Hell....
In the African and Asian colonies, things went much better for the Entente. In Africa, the war essentially devolved into a stalemate as neither the Entente nor the Alliance was able to gain a strategic advantage. In the chaos, several colonies also revolted against their European masters, with Liberian help. These revolts would eventually be put down, but further disrupted the war effort. Africa's real importance was as a source of manpower for the warring faction, as the French, Germans, Italians, and British all used native African troops in Africa and in Europe. Asia on the other hand, was no real contest. The French, British, and Japanese plowed into Germany's holdings in the region, and had secured all of them by January of 1915.
America started as the lone "neutral great power in the whole conflagration. The Americans viewed the savagery of the war as "proof that America should not ally with greedy European powers." In reality, public sentiment was heavily pro-German. There was a massive German immigrant population in the US, and the events of the previous decades had sown a great deal of bad blood between the US and the powers of the Entente. This was most clearly reflected in who America sold weapons and supplies too. Although the US did sell to the Entente, the majority of their business went to Germany. Furthermore, President Roosevelt's imperial ambitions began getting the better of him. American naval ships conducted not so friendly "weapons demonstrations" and wargames off the coast of British and French colonies in the Caribbean. Roosevelt then began trying to strong arm the Entente powers into selling their Caribbean holdings, promising them cash and weapons. Needless to say, this didn't go over well with either power...
By 1916, the Entente was in bad shape. While Britain was still in good shape, Russia was rapidly collapsing and France was also beginning to crumble. In desperation, the Royal Navy attempted to blockade Italian and German ports, and declared a policy of "unrestricted naval warfare" designed to choke Alliance supply lines. This would prove to be a fatal mistake.....
Russian troops retreat from East Prussia
German troops during the Battle of the Marne
British soldiers during a gas attack in France
Black German troops in German East Africa
Japanese sailors celebrate the capture of German Micronesia
French anti-German propaganda
The USS Boston, preparing to go on patrol near Jamaica
The next chapter will cover the Homefront
Chapter 15: America's Entry into WWI and Triple Alliance Victory
1916 would spell disaster for the Entente, and would be the beginning of the end of the First World War. In the East, Russia was on the verge of collapse. In the West, France had been turned into a horrific meat grinder, with both sides hoping that the stalemate could be broken if they simply threw more bodies into the conflict. As newspapers reported the bloodbath, public sentiment in Britain and France soured. This would lead to major problems for the British......
In March 1916, Ireland experienced the St. Patrick's Day Rebellion. Irish nationalists proclaimed a provisional Republic in Ireland, and began a massive revolt in Dublin. The British, who were becoming increasingly paranoid about internal threats to the war effort, over-reacted. They launched massive artillery strikes at inner city Dublin, and sent in over 30,000 soldiers with orders to "put the Paddies down." Many British troops wound up firing on Irish civilians, mistaking them for rebels. In the end, over 3500 people would die over the course of the 4 day rebellion, 3200 of whom were Irish. As word spread throughout Ireland of the horrific violence that erupted in Dublin, riots began to spread. In Northern Ireland, Protestants and Catholics began forming mobs that would roam the streets, looking for members of the rival religious group to lynch....
On April 8th, 1916, the beginning of the end had truly begun. The British had been practicing "unrestricted naval warfare" for six months. During this time several American cargo ships carrying supplies to the Triple Alliance had been sunk by the Royal Navy. While the American public hated this, at the same time they accepted it as a part of "normal warfare." However, on that fateful day of April 8th, the Marco Polo, an American cruise ship, was sunk by the Royal Navy. Over 300 Americans died. This was the final straw for the American public, who demanded that the Entente be punished. By the end of the month, America was officially at war with Britain, France, Russia, and Japan. President Roosevelt (who won an unprecedented 3rd term in the face of war) was alleged to have remarked "Bully!" upon hearing that war had been declared. He had wanted to get involved in the war from the start after all. Shortly after, the US forces in the Caribbean were given the green light to initiate operations.....
The War in the Caribbean wasn't so much a war as it was a turkey shoot. The British and French forces were out-manned and out-gunned by an insane margin. By mid July, every British and French territory in the Caribbean had been seized by the US. In an additional slap in the face to the British, the American government brought down surviving filibusters from the Jamaica Incident and gave them the honor of formally declaring American ownership of the island. After securing the Caribbean territories, the Americans then invaded British and French Guiana. These territories were slightly more difficult to take, but were still not an overwhelming challenge. By mid September, the only operational Entente territory was Canada....
The American/Canadian front of the war was brutal. The Canadians knew they couldn't invade the Northeast where major urban areas were. So, they instead attempted a punitive expedition... through Minnesota and the Dakotas. The goal was to terrorize the American public into giving up. With that in mind, many small farming towns and villages were ransacked by the invaders, hoping that the Americans would give up. Instead, they unleashed a wave of near genocidal hatred in the American populace. American artillery in New York launched massive bombardments at Toronto, nearly leveling the city. After repelling the Canadian expedition, the Americans chased them over the border, and captured the city of Winnipeg. From here, there wouldn't be many more notable military actions on this front, as the Americans knew further invading Canada in the winter (Winnipeg was captured in early October would be suicidal. The Canadians, for their part, decided that further aggressive action against the Americans would end rather poorly. Several attempts were made at recapturing Winnipeg, but the Americans were able to hold out until the end of the war....
In Africa, America and Liberia wreaked havoc. Initially, they were on the defensive, as the British and French ruthlessly pounded away at Liberian border defenses. However, as the Americans fully mobilized for total war, so too did Liberia. By December of 1916, the American-Liberian Expeditionary force numbered over 150,000. In January, a bold sneak offensive resulted in the capture of Sierra Leone. The natives were ecstatic, as the Liberians had been smuggling them propaganda promising "liberation from the British oppressors" for years. The rest of the war would be spent fending of French attacks, and in mid 1917, successfully invading the Ivory Coast. This further drained the Entente's already thinly spread resources...
America's entrance to the war also gave the Entente troubles in the Pacific. Although no attempts were made at invasions, the Americans and the Entente had a series of large naval battles, centered around the South China Sea. The Americans performed admirably, winning several impressive victories over the French and Japanese. The biggest American failure in the Pacific was their loss to the Royal Navy at the Battle of Hong Kong. Nonetheless, this was not a crippling defeat, and America's position in the Pacific remained secure for the duration of the war.
By early 1917, the Entente had fallen apart. Russia had bowed out of the war, after a series of revolutions resulted in a Communist government conceding to German demands as the Russian Civil War erupted. In France, the string of Entente defeats at the hands of the Americans sparked massive mutinies and riots both on the battlefield, and on the home-front. Even worse, in 1917 the so called "Easter Rising" occurred in Ireland, and was essentially the start of Ireland's bid for independence. Facing revolt and collapsing military strength, the Entente sued for peace on the "seventh hour of the seventh day of the seventh month" (July 7th). The war was over....
The triumphant Alliance and defeated Entente gathered to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The terms were harsh. Belgium (who was technically neutral but had been overrun by Germany) was to cede the Congo to Germany. The British were made to cede colonies in southern Africa to Germany, allowing the Germans to form their envisioned "Mittelafrika." Britain also ceded Sierra Leone to Liberia, New Guinea to Germany, Somalialand to Italy, their territories on the Arabian Peninsula to the Ottomans, along with giving Hong Kong, British Guiana, and all Caribbean territories to America. Furthermore, America forced the British to begin paying the Alabama Claims which when "interest, late fees, and the lack of Canada" was considered, they stated were worth $35 billion. France hardly fared any better. The Ivory Coast was to be granted "independence" (in reality it was a client state of the Liberians). Germany received French Dahomey and all of French Equatorial Africa. The Italians received Tunisia, French Guinea, and French Morocco. America received French Guiana, the French West Indies, and purchased French Indochina for the tune of $130 million. The Germans also thrust billions of dollars worth of reparations on France. Japan was made to pay some light reparations. In the Balkans, Bulgaria gained Macedonia. The Balkans would once again be an issue as the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed several years later....
The world after WWI was unrecognizable. Roughly 22 million people had died, and another 20 million were wounded. The British and French empires had been humiliated. Germany and America stood triumphant over a new order. However, resentment and nationalism would make the coming decades as tumultuous as ever....
American propaganda circa 1916
The ceremony where former African American filibusters formally announced American control of Jamaica
Eastern Europe after the collapse of the Russian Empire
Mittelafrika (the light blue territories are Portugal's colonies, which Germany didn't take)
The War affected civilians behind the lines almost as much as it affected the soldiers fighting in foreign fields. The Roosevelt Administration nationalized major industries, began rationing everything from lard to fish hooks, and introduced price controls to prevent an inflationary spiral. Women entered the workforce for the first time. In an effort to drum up support for the war, a massive propaganda campaign washed over America, with posters, songs, parades, and the so-called "Four Minute Men." This led to inflamed patriotic sentiment which would have consequences later on....
Due to the total nature of the war, Roosevelt commandeered the nation's industry in order to direct all of America's resources at the current conflict. This was the most any American government had ever involved itself in the nation's economy, and it set a precedent for future government regulations and wartime nationalizations. By the same token, however, the government also got involved in strike breaking. Whether it was the Railroad Strike in November of 1916, or the coal miners strike in January 1917, the government had the same response; forcibly break them up in the name of "national security and victory." However, the government didn't stop there....
Shortly after war was declared, the government passed the Sabotage Act of 1916, as well as the Anti-Sedition Act of 1916. These laws essentially silenced criticism of the war from pacifists, socialists, pro-French and pro-British groups, and others. The Anti-Sedition Act was especially harsh, threatening prison time to those who used "abusive language" against "American institutions, the American flag, the American government, or the war effort." Under these acts, leading members of the socialist movement, including Socialist Presidential candidate Seymour Stedman, were imprisoned for years. However, it wasn't just the government looking for conspirators.....
In response to increased paranoia about subversion and sabotage, several large but short lived nationalist organizations. These groups called for mandatory conscription, the Americanization of all immigrants and colonial subjects, making English the national language, as well as the deportation or imprisonment of "socialists, anarchists, draft dodgers, slackers, unassimilated Frenchmen, and pacifists." Members of these groups often acted as spies in their own communities, attempting to find and annihilate treason. However, some groups went farther. They attacked striking workers, pacifists, and especially French speakers. Violence was especially bad in Louisiana, where thousands of Cajuns were tarred and feathered for speaking French. This was the violent prelude to the more widespread outburst of xenophobia that occurred throughout the 1920's and 30's....
Another massive change was the entry of large numbers of women into the workforce, as the men were drafted into the Armed Forces. This led to an increase in agitation for women's suffrage, as suffragettes proclaimed "If we're good enough to do a man's job, we're good enough to have a man's vote." In 1919, they would get their wish, along with Prohibition (which women had agitated for)...
By the end of WWI, America had transformed more than it had since the Civil War. The government was larger and more powerful than ever before. America was more powerful and larger than at any point in the nation's history. Furthermore, the massive wave of nationalism and unity that swept the nation began to heal regional and racial divides as old as America itself. However, there was work to be done....
A badge from the nationalist American Protective League. The League was made an auxiliary of the Justice Department in January 1917
Chapter 17: The Irish War for Independence and the Irish-American League
In the immediate aftermath of the Great War, the people of Ireland once again rose up in rebellion. The hope was that a Britain exhausted by the War would rather let the Emerald Isle leave peacefully than possibly fight another grueling campaign of counter insurgency. Unfortunately for the Irish, the British government had made a firm commitment to "not take a single step backwards." Furthermore, the Irish and their "stab in the back" was increasingly being used by the British government as a scapegoat for British defeat in the Great War. The resulting conflict would be a three year long slog of religious and ethnic warfare between the Catholic Irish and the Protestant Ulster-Scots and British government...
Throughout the rest of 1917 and most of 1918, the Emerald Isle was in an unofficial, low level guerrilla war. The Irish Republican Army detonated several makeshift bombs at British government buildings. As unrest increased throughout 1918, London decided to put the hammer down. On November 12th, the British government announced that the December General Election was to be "suspended indefinitely in the face of continued subversion and unrest." The Irish population exploded in anger. The Irish knew that the election had only been canceled out of fear that the Sinn Fein Party would gain ground and declare independence. Dublin, Cork, and Munster saw massive riots erupt within hours of the election's cancellation. In the countryside, IRA membership exploded, as Irish farmers decided to wage a much more intense guerrilla campaign against the British. The IRA and rioters made a special point of targeting the Royal Irish Constabulary, harassing and murdering members of the unit. As their morale crumbled, the British decided to form a "special reserve" to bolster their forces in Ireland. They would crush the rabble rousing Irishmen, no matter what....
The Royal Irish Constabulary Special Reserve, known as the Black and Tans, was predominantly made up of British Army veterans and Ulster Protestants. They quickly earned a reputation for unrelenting brutality. When members of their units were killed by Republican forces, the Black and Tans would go into a village and murder civilians in retaliation. There were also reports of widespread looting, vandalism, robbery, harassment, and other inappropriate conduct towards civilians. As news of war crimes reached the wider world, many nations were outraged. However, none were so angry as the Americans.....
When news of British atrocities in Ireland reached the United States, the population, especially the Irish-American segment, reacted with barely contained rage. In the streets of New York and other cities heavily settled by Irish immigrants, mobs gathered to burn Union Jacks and chant anti-British slogans. Many were openly calling for war against Britain, even though the US had just ended a war with the nation. President Roosevelt openly declared, "So long as I am President of this Union, I shall not lead more American boys to die in some foreign field." However, he did nothing to stop the rise of the Irish-American League, who openly stated that their aim was to "aid the cause of Irish independence, with material and men." Another filibuster style incident was coming...
Starting in June of 1919, heavily armed Americans began showing up in Ireland and fighting the Black and Tans. At first the British government was bewildered as to where the heavily armed, well trained Republicans were coming from. Then, after an American volunteer broke under torture, the secret was out. The Irish-American League was equipping Irish-American WWI veterans and sending them to fight for the cause of Irish independence. The British government and people were outraged. When Secretary of State for War Winston Churchill demanded the Americans prosecute the Irish filibusters, Roosevelt openly refused claiming, "No American government has the authority to restrict the freedom of travel f honest, hardworking citizens." In reality, he secretly sympathized with the Irish fight, and knew the British were completely impotent in regards to American security. In England, the press began screaming about the "malignant conspiracy of traitorous Irishmen and mongrelized Yankee bastards." Despite all of their kicking and screaming, as American men and weapons flooded Ireland, the British recognized that the end was near...
On July 12th, 1920, the British partitioned Ireland. The United Kingdom would keep the predominantly Protestant north, while the Catholic south was to become the Republic of Ireland. In England and Scotland, riots broke out as nationalists demanded the "annihilation of the damnable Paddies." As the years went on, this sentiment would become frighteningly prevalent...
Meanwhile in Ireland, the people were celebrating wildly, and thanking their American patrons. July 4th was declared Irish American Friendship Day, and was a national holiday. In America, massive parties broke out to celebrate the independence of their "Irish brothers in liberty." The success of the Irish-American League would inspire further filibustering and imperial adventurism throughout the 1920's....
The flag of the Republic of Ireland
A photograph of the Black and Tans assaulting an Irishwoman
A postcard demonstrating American support for Irish independence
Chapter 18: The Russian Civil War and the Rise of the Union of Orthodox Christian States
After World War I, Ireland was not the only place experiencing a civil war. Russia was embroiled in a bloody civil war between the Communists and the Whites, who were a big tent organization of conservatives and moderates. The Whites also received help from Germany and America, both of whom were terrified at the thought of a Communist state that was as large and powerful as Russia. In the end, many would privately wonder if that had been the better option.....
The Bolsheviks were doing well for a time. After overthrowing the provisional government in December 1916, they were able to successfully negotiate peace with the Germans and begin routing the "reactionary Whites" by early 1917. The rest of the year would be spent gradually pushing the Whites back and seeming to take control of the country. However, resistance was stiff everywhere and in October, American and German troops began pouring into the country to crush the Reds. The Germans were also bogged down by socialist and anarchist revolutionaries in the Ukraine, which meant that until March 1918, the Americans were the biggest supporters of the Whites. Nonetheless, the war did begin to turn...
The final turning point was in September of 1918. The Ukraine was pacified enough for German troops to make a drive into Russian territory. Eventually, the Bolshevik forces, led by Lenin and Trotsky, were cornered in Moscow. The Reds quickly sent Trotsky to try and negotiate with the Ukrainian anarchist "Grey Army," only to find the group had been crushed by the Germans the day before. The Germans arrested Trotsky for "conspiring to incite rebellion," and the Reds eventually collapsed under the pressure of the White Volunteer Army, led by Anton Denikin. The Whites would claim Moscow on November 2nd, 1918. From there, it was just a matter of cleaning up the remnants of Bolshevik and assorted leftist rebels. By June 3rd, 1919, this job had been done, and the Whites proclaimed total victory. There would be a great deal of power struggle between the moderates, the revanchists, and the theocrats, as each struggled to shape the future of Russia...
On January 1st, 1920, Anton Denikin and his theocrats won the struggle. Several former White officers were assassinated and he marched into the Kremlin, flanked by his most loyal officers. At the Kremlin, he gathered thousands of soldiers outside, who cheered for their hero and leader "He who crushed the Red Snakes." In a thundering address, he promised to spread the "holy light of the Russian Soul to the four corners of the world." His address was also virulently anti-Semitic, anti-Masonic, and anti-Muslim. Around the nation, thousands of Jews and Muslims were massacred in pogroms. Thousands more began the "Great Exodus." After delivering his address, Denikin and his new government announced the formation of the Union of Orthodox Christian States. Denikin would be the nigh-omnipotent Supreme Director. In a blatant power grab, the office of the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church was absorbed into the Supreme Director's office....
As pogroms erupted, world opinion turned against the new government. The Germans denounced the massacres as "unbecoming of a civilized state." The Japanese claimed it was further proof of "The innate savagery of the Russian people." The Americans were even harsher, claiming that "These pogroms are disgusting, and any people that commits such atrocities on such a scale must also be disgusting." The fact that thousands of Jewish and Muslim refugees fled to America didn't help. In fact, it led to an outburst of anti-Russian racism felt by black and white alike....
Anti-Semitic, anti-Bolshevik propaganda employed by the Whites
Supreme Director Anton Denikin
The Flag of the Union of Orthodox Christian States (photo creds Sapiento)
Here's some Roaring 20's goodness. This is going to be pretty long
Chapter 19: American Culture and Society in the 1920's
America in the 1920's was a strange place indeed. On one hand, a new generation shaped by the Great War was creating new dances, new kinds of music, and new ways of looking at art and life. On the other hand, moralism prevailed in passing Prohibition (which made drinking worse), the American public had one of the most intense outbursts of xenophobia ever recorded in a free nation, and the so-called Eugenics movement arose. One thing is indisputable; the "Roaring Twenties" were exciting, loud, and dangerous...
In entertainment, new technologies and trends swept the nation. The introduction of "Talkies" or movies with sound, spelled the end of vaudeville and other assorted entertainments. As movies exploded in popularity, the studios competed with one another to build the most lavish "movie palaces." There were uniformed ushers, plush velvet carpets and seats, and some of the most ornate decorations ever seen by the American public. During this decade, radio also took off. Although the industry started with many broadcasters, in the end, the tendency would be towards a Big Three system (just like the movie industry). Music, news, short stories and more were broadcast over the airwaves into the homes of millions of Americans. For those who were more sports minded, the 20's were incredible as well. Legendary baseball players like the Baltimore Orioles Robert "Sluggy" Jones and Yankees star pitcher Joey Scaramucci brought new life into the game. When combined with new stadiums, higher wages, and more leisure time, this meant that attendance at games skyrocketed to unheard of levels. Boxing also experienced a boom as legendary fighters like Bobby Dempsey (aka the Richmond Ravager) and others proved to be some of the finest athletes of their time.
A side effect of the rise of movies, radio, baseball, and boxing was the beginning of celebrity worship in America. Newspapers knew they could easily boost circulation by covering the lives, loves, and screw ups of America's favorite stars. Soon, many Americans would religiously follow the antics of film stars and sports heroes. Celebrity marriages could wind up making front page news, while criminal scandals could sometimes lead the outraged public to take violent action against the accused.
Music and dancing underwent a revolution in this decade as well. In the North, but especially the South, African and Latin music exploded into the mainstream with Jazz and New Salsa respectively. White Americans flocked to formerly black and Hispanic clubs to listen to the new styles. In turn, white clubs began bringing in colored performers to draw crowds. This was a starting step for full racial integration, as the unspoken rule for a generation had generally followed a "stick with your own kind" policy. This wave of new music also created new dance crazes, the most famous of which are "the Charleston" (more popular with Jazz fans) and "the Havana" (for New Salsa fans). These dances excited young people (who were driving the cultural revolution) and outraged older generations for being "lewd and lascivious."
If the new dance crazes upset the older generation, new styles in women's fashion made them have a collective stroke. Until this decade, most women's dress went all the way down to their ankles. In the 20's, so called Bee-Boppers began wearing dresses that came down to the calf or knee. Many of these women also began wearing their hair boyishly short. What alarmed parents even more was their liberal (for the time) attitudes towards sex and dating. Bee-Boppers and their male counterparts "Dappers" held so-called "cuddling parties" and preferred casual dating to formal courtship. Authorities across the nation were enraged, particularly in the South, where white and black communities engaged in a rare show of unity to try and crush the new youth movement. The prevailing opinion was expressed perfectly in the Charleston Mercury: "These so-called Bee-Boppers and their "Dapper" counterparts are dancing, drinking, and fornicating their way straight to the gates of Hell, and are taking the rest of us with them!"
Perhaps the strangest thing about all of this partying was that a great deal of it was indeed illegal, yet that fact just seemed to fuel the wildness. In 1920, the 19th Amendment to the Constitution effectively outlawed alcohol in the United States. This was mainly forced into law by suffragettes and women activists (who won when the 18th Amendment got passed) who viewed alcohol as a moral danger, and as one of the roots of wife-beating.
In reality, all the amendment did was fuel the largest surge in organized crime in American history. Italian and Russian crime families waged bloody battles in the streets to control the illegal booze trade, which became a multi-billion dollar industry overnight. However, these mafias were kept out of the South by a new breed of American folk icons; the moonshiners. These predominantly Scots-Irish mountain people engaged in an arms race with police to see whose car could outrun the other. Clannish, fiercely independent, and heavily armed, these good ol boys made sure that the Southern city folk had plenty of strong, oftentimes home brewed alcohol to keep the party rolling. When combined with the influence of African-American mobsters in the cities who imported higher quality Canadian hooch, the South remained free of Italian and Russian criminal power. Indeed, the African Americans and moonshiners would often temporarily ally with each other to "keep the greedy Yankees out of our wallets." In the North and West however, the Russians and Italians practically owned the cities. Cops, judges, and even mayors were all on the take. Eventually, the FBI had to be brought in to help restore order. This crack team of so-called "Invincibles" would become heroes in their own right for their shoot outs with mobsters and moonshiners alike.
Another, more virulent reactionary policy in the 20's was an unprecedented outburst of xenophobia. The Great War, the Irish War for Independence, and the UOCS had convinced the American public that the vast majority of foreigners were "savages hell-bent on annihilating each other out of sheer hatred." In 1924, President Beauregard passed the Immigration Quota Act. Every nation on Earth was allowed a set quota of immigrants every year. Latin America, Northern Europe, and China were relatively favored, having larger quotas than anyone else. The country that suffered the worst was Russia. As thousands of Jews and Muslims fled to the US and told tales of pogroms and atrocities (which were mostly accurate) the American government famously set the immigration quota for Russia at 20 (since those oppressed that could flee already had). When asked why Russia was only allowed 20 immigrants, President Beauregard famously remarked "Because if we allow 20 Ruskies in every year, we can find one good man among them and deport the other 19." Those immigrants that were allowed in were explicitly told to Amercanize, and to do it quickly..
Finally, the most "scientific" of the era's more unfortunate policies was the Eugenics movement. Eugenics was a worldwide phenomenon, but took an unusual twist in America. Whereas in other countries Eugenics was explicitly racist, American Eugenics was less so. The biggest branch of the movement called for "Eugenic policies for the improvement of both Negros and Whites. These two native American races should be allowed to separately develop into a higher, all-American form." The movement was especially popular among educated whites and blacks alike, and by the end of the decade, 38 states would have Eugenics laws on the books. These laws took the form of forced sterilization of "prostitutes, unwed mothers, criminals, drunks, cripples, and retards." While the motivation might have been high minded, the practical result was that the government wound up waging war on America's most vulnerable citizens, and using Eugenic justifications to keep out foreigners.
The 1920's was a remarkable time. The nation was changing faster than ever, and the decades policies and culture would reverberate for decades. The good, the bad, and the ugly parts of this era all had an equal part in putting the roar into the 20's...
Orioles legend Sluggy Jones hitting a homer
A movie palace in San Francisco
Two Bee-Boppers and a Dapper
Heavily armed moonshiners guard their still
Russian-American Los Angeles crime boss Dimitri Yeltsin. During the height of his power, Yeltsin had the mayor of L.A. in his pocket, and was even able to influence the movie industry
